Library Science

Libraries are repositories of knowledge, information and entertainment. The basic aim of library is to disseminate knowledge. With the upsurge in the number of institutes in the field of learning and the intensification of research activities, the importance of libraries is also growing. This has made the librarianship attain the status of a separate discipline in the universe of knowledge. Librarianship is the profession which concerns with organising, maintenance and storage of books in a library. Librarians are the custodians of library. Librarians assist people in finding information and using it effectively in their personal and professional lives. (They help people to navigate the increasingly far-flung and voluminous world of data.)

Libraries contain books, periodicals, micro-films, videos, cassettes and slides - for education, research, reference and pleasure. Those who systematically catalogue, store and display these items are librarians. The traditional concept of a library is being redefined, from a place to access paper records or books, to one which also houses the most advanced media, including CD-ROM, the Internet, virtual libraries, and remote access to a wide range of resources.

There are different kinds of libraries depending upon the individuals to which it is catering. Various kinds of libraries are public, reference, children’s libraries and those attached to offices and institutions of both private and public. These could include a mobile lending library. There are also specialist libraries attached to the research and academic institutions that cater to specific readers in specific subjects such as medicine, engineering, art, music, or types of books such as Braille or collections for children.

Eligibility & Course Areas

Educational: Minimum qualification required to take up a course in Library Science is graduation. One with graduation can go for Bachelors degree in library science. Duration of this bachelors course is one year. Those with Bachelor degree in library science can go for Masters degree in library science which is of one year duration. One can also go for M.Phil and Ph.D in this field. There are also diploma and certificate courses. 

Various universities, colleges, polytechnics, as well as distance learning institutions around the country offer courses in Library Science. In most of the institutes selection is through an entrance test. 

Course areas include library and information systems management, classification/cataloguing systems, bibliography, documentation, preservation and conservation of manuscript, library management, research methodology, computer applications, information processing, archives management, indexing, library planning etc.

Personal attributes:

One can become a librarian if he/she has a basic interest in books as well as a variety of topics, good communication skills, customer service attitude, methodical approach, organising ability, ability to anticipate user's needs, a wide general knowledge and ability to cope with frequent interruptions when doing jobs requiring concentration. 

They must have knowledge of a wide variety of scholarly and public information sources, and follow trends related to publishing, computers, and the media to effectively oversee the selection and organization of library materials.

Job Prospects & Career Options

Job prospects 

Trained personnel in this field can find employment opportunities in areas like: • Public/Government libraries

• Universities and other academic institutions

• News agencies and organisations

• Private organisations and special libraries

• Foreign embassies

• Photo/film libraries 

• Information centres/documentation centers

• Companies and organisations with large information handling requirements

• Museums and galleries, which have reading rooms and research facilities

Some library technicians are self-employed as researchers, consultants, cataloguers etc. on short term contracts.

Career Options

Librarians are information managers. Librarians assist people in finding information and using it effectively. A librarian's work would involve acquiring, organising and dissemination of information. Besides these, the planning and coordination of the library's financial operations are also important and essential tasks to be performed. Specific duties depends on the type of library and position held. 

Acquisition of knowledge/information involves selection, ordering and purchasing materials within the budget limits. For this one must have to take into consideration users interest and latest developments in various subjects to be able to maintain a balanced collection. 

Organising information involves classification, cataloguing, storage, record keeping, shelving and maintenance of books and materials in a manner so as to make it easily accessible to readers and users. 

Dissemination of information is the most important work of the librarian, one that is very much directly related to users. A librarian thus disseminates information by answering queries, issuing and receiving books as well as planning and organising activities to encourage use of the library, like sending out a newsletter informing readers of the latest acquisitions, or inviting a children's author to read his/her book or sign autographs.

The career for a librarian may begin at the level of library attendant and though the promotions may differ from organization to organization, in general the levels followed thereafter are of library assistant, junior librarian, assistant librarian, deputy librarian, and librarian. One may reach up to the level of Director and head an information centre. 

Library Attendant: Takes care of inter-library loans shelving books, processing bills, subscription renewals and new memberships.

Library Assistant: Main duties involve accession, shelf arrangements, levying of fines, maintenance and binding of books and other materials, location of missing books, and related technical work.

Junior Librarian/Semi-Professional Assistant: Works at the counter to receive and issue books, sends out reminders on overdue loans, looks after accessioning.

Junior Librarian/Professional Assistant: Is responsible for accessioning, classification, cataloguing, ordering books, as well as handling computer data.

Junior Librarian/Assistant Librarian: Selects and acquires books and material, takes care of reference services and computer programming, as well as supervision of semi-professional assistants.

Deputy Librarian: Oversees administration, supervision, and computer programming. 

Librarian: Is overall in charge of technical, administrative, and financial matters. Responsibilities include delegation of duties, library supervision and management, personnel administration, budgeting, classification and cataloguing, and recommendation of new acquisitions.

Director/Head Of Information Centre: Works at the policy and planning level, and is responsible for the center's organization, coordination, control, leadership, external relations, supervision and administration. 

In information services, designations could be:

Senior Information Analyst: Activities include processing of information, indexing, documentation etc.

Junior Information Analyst: Assists senior analyst in all aspects of work.

Information Assistant: Information transfers, processing, storage and dissemination of information under supervision of senior staff are the main tasks in this position.

Institutes

Click on the following link for the details of Indian Institutes :

» Bachelor of Library and Information Science (BLISc)

» Bachelor of Library Science (BLSc) 

» Certificate Course in Library Science

» Diploma in Archives and Documentation

» Diploma in Library Science (DLSc)

» M.Phil. Library Science

» Master of Library and Information Science (MLISc)

» Master of Library Science (MLSc)

» Ph.D. Library Science

Overseas Institutes :

» Institutes in USA

» Institutes in Canada

Leather Technology

The Indian leather industry which is the fourth largest export industry in the world, is growing by leaps and bounds. India not only exports leather goods and footwear to western countries, but leather is also consumed in large quantities by the domestic market. It is one of the largest foreign exchange earners for the country. With more and more multinationals coming to India, this industry is poised to become a hi-tech one. 

Leather has become part and parcel of modern accessories, in possession of almost all sections of people. Everybody uses leather in some form or the other and it is always in demand for fashion, sport and comfort. The largest share of the industry is still footwear, despite growing competition from materials like synthetics and fabric. Besides footwear, Leatherwear constitutes a variety of products ranging from accessories like belts, luggage and bags, jackets, gloves, purses and caps to toys, upholstery, baggage, musical instruments, garment tags, gift items etc.

Leather is a natural, three dimensional non-woven fabric not easily or completely duplicated in other material. The utility of leather is attributed to its specific properties as a natural product like strength, comfort and durability. Leather technology is a branch of engineering which deals with synthesis, production and refining of leather so that it can be put into efficient use. It also deals with the synthesis of artificial leather and its efficient use to make commercial goods.

A career in Leather technology is a lucrative option these days. Until a few years ago, those who happened to be in the industry came up through experience rather than through any formal training. But now with this industry advancing and developing both technologically and professionally, it calls for qualified professionals to cater to the needs and requirements of the people. To cater to the need for qualified hands, many institutes and colleges have come up providing diploma and degree in this field.

Leather industry is mainly concentrated in and around Agra, Kanpur, Kolkata, Mumbai and Chennai. There are three main areas of work in the industry: namely designing, manufacturing and marketing. Designing involves creating new patters according to fashion trends. Computer aided Design (CAD) is used in this field. Manufacturing involves mass production of designs approved by designers. Marketing ensures a ready market for finished products. Leather industry is a labour intensive industry that can be started as a low cost-intensive small scale unit, as it requires relatively small investment, cheap labour, raw material and minimal power supply.

Eligibility & Course Areas

Educational

Courses in leather designing are offered at various levels of study. The eligibility criteria differ from the kind of course one wants to opt for. For pursuing B.Sc and B.tech in Leather designing/technology, a student must clear class 10+2 or equivalent with PCM. To get admission in B.Tech/B.E in Leather Technology one must clear IIT JEE for entry into IITs or AIEEE for entry into NITs and other government as well as private institutes. Apart from that, there are also various state entrance Exams which are held for admission to colleges in that respective state. B.Tech is required for pursuing M.Tech in leather technology. There are also diploma and certificate courses. These courses would further enhance the job prospects -in the fast-developing leather as well as fashion technology industry.

Subjects taught under bachelor courses include Analytical chemistry of pre-tanning materials, applications of biochemistry and biotechnology, leather processing, Computer aided engineering graphics and leather product designing and development, using software.

Institutes like the Central Leather Research Institute (CLRI), The National Institute of Fashion Technology (NIFT), Government Leather Institute at Agra are some of the prominent institutes offering courses in this area.

Personal attributes

Like in any other industry, commitment, dedication and hard work are the key factors in leather industry too. Creativity, with an artistic flair and an innovative, unique style of thinking can do wonders for designers. Coming up with fresh ideas, concepts and designs, is key for a leather designer. They must be able to work individually or as part of a team. Those in the marketing segment must be alert with the changing trends in the market.

Job Prospects & Career Options

Leather technology is a career most suited for those with creative talent as it is a field which has great role in our fashion conscious world. Career areas in this industry can be categorized as designing, technical and marketing. Depending upon the interest and aptitude one can choose the area most suited. Designing in leather industry involves creating and developing new and up-to-date patterns, keeping in mind the fashion trends. Technical side deals with manufacture or production. The manufacturing process of leather products begins in the tanneries and leather factories, where production managers supervise the tanning and treatment of animal skins which preserve the leather and make it soft and flexible.

There is ample employment opportunities in the leather industry within India and abroad. The supply of trained man power for this industry is far less than the demand. Hence, a good academic record coupled with hands on training and experience can offer good career prospects for Leather Technology graduates. On attaining required qualification in leather technology one can work as technical designers and stylist designers. While Technical designers train themselves in pattern making, cutting, designing etc. Stylist designers are responsible for updating the product in fashion and style.

Those passing out from prestigious institutes get managerial positions in leather firms, export houses and government organisations. Leather technologists/designers find employment, specifically with the footwear, leather garments and leather products industries. Designers are also employed by leather garment production houses and boutiques. Established designers also hire young designers to work under them. After gaining enough experience, Leather Technologists can spread their wings and venture out on their own by starting a unit for manufacturing and marketing leather products across domestic and international markets. Teaching is another avenue that can be explored. Leather technologists can work as lectures in universities/institutes.

Leather industry offers attractive growth prospects for people working in the sector. Leather designing is considered as one career which is totally based on performance and experience and there is no limit for creative people. One can later on move from production technologist to quality control checker, research or technical management sector etc. Prospects are also open for working in departments such as buying, sales or marketing.

Institutes

Institutes like the Central Leather Research Institute (CLRI), The National Institute of Fashion Technology (NIFT), Government Leather Institute at Agra are some of the prominent institutes offering courses in this area.

Click on the course name to know the list of institutes conducting particular course

» B.Tech Leather Technology

» Bachelor of Design (B.Des.) Leather Design

» Diploma in Leather Goods and Accessories Design (DLGAD)

» Diploma in Footwear Designing and Production

» Certificate Course in Shoe Designing and Pattern Cutting

» Computer Aided Shoe Designing

» Shoe Production

Law

Legal profession is one of the growing and lucrative professions all over the world. It is one of the most adventurous as well as exciting career. Lawyers are held in high esteem in our society, and there remains the faith that when all else fails, one can still take recourse to the legal system. In our daily life in one way or other we may come across situations where legal advice is required. In such situation we need the advice of a legal professionals who analyse and interpret law properly.

Lawyers counsel clients about their legal rights and suggest course of action in a particular matter. They also advise clients and draw up legal documents, such as wills and contracts and conduct negotiations on legal matters, and may represent clients in court and tribunal proceedings.

Academic excellence is not the main thing behind the success in this profession. Professional competence acquired through experience and practice with efficient lawyers is the main yardstick of success.

There are various areas of specialisation in this field which one can choose from like corporation law, civil law, criminal law, international law, labour law, patent law, tax law and so on.

There are number of institutions and universities conducting courses in law. The most premier among law universities in India is National Law School Of India University (NLSIU), Bangalore. Admission to NLSIU is through an All India Admission Test held usually on first Sunday in May. University College Bangalore, Government College Mumbai, ILS law college and Symbiosis college, Pune and Faculty of Law of Delhi University, Aligarh Muslim University etc are some of the other leading legal Institutions in India.

Eligibility & Course Areas

Educational: Minimum qualification to go for a course in law (LLB) is 10+2. Course duration is of 5 years and is sponsored by the Bar Council Of India. 

P.G. Programmes in law (LLM) are of 2 years duration & eligibility is LLB degree.

In addition to LL.B. degree, many universities and institutes also offer other diploma courses in several disciplines of law, including Administrative Law, International Law, Labour Laws, Tax Laws and Corporate Laws.

In most of the institutes/universities, selection is on the basis of an entrance test. The entrance examination is objective type in nature. The questions invariably cover areas like Reasoning, General Awareness, Numerical Aptitude, Legal Aptitude and Preliminary Political Science.

Teaching is not restricted to the conventional class-room methods alone, it include case studies, mock court etc. to make the study more practical and interesting.

There are various branches of specialisation in law like civil law, criminal law, corporate law, property law, income tax law, marine law, public international law, family law, labour law, press law, excise law, constitutional law, administration law, sale of goods law, trade mark, copyright and patent law etc. one can choose from.

Personal attributes: 

Success in this profession is not based on marks one obtain in the exam, but it is very much related to personal attributes. One must have good oral and written communication skills, logical reasoning, power of concentration, patience, good memory to relate and quote past cases to prove your point, ability to argue and discuss matters with a variety of people, self confidence, courage to deal with threats especially in criminal cases etc. He should have up-to-date information on any changes in law. A good library and a fair amount of reading is also important. 

Job Prospects & Career Options

Job prospects

They can find employment in various courts of law, in government service both Central and State government, as teachers, as legal advisors in various companies, business houses, organisations etc. They also do private practice as legal advisors, advocates, solicitors etc.

Career Options

One who wishes to become an advocate and practice law as a profession in India, should enroll with the local State Central Bar council. An application for admission as an advocate shall be made in the prescribed form to the State Bar Council within whose jurisdiction the applicant proposes to practice. The Bar Council of India and the State Bar Councils forms a self contained code of law for legal professionals practicing in India.

Lawyers can find employment in a variety of positions in the Government Service as well as other fields. Lawyer can also work as legal counsel and legal advisers for firms, organizations and families. They can work as trustees of various trusts, as teachers, law reporters, company secretary and so on. Opportunities exist in the defense services too. Additional qualification along with law degree offers scope for a wide range of employment opportunities.

Government Services 

Lawyers are appointed in central services ( Indian legal service) through UPSC on grounds of their experience in the field. Post covered under Indian legal service are Law officers, Assistant Advisors, Dy. Legal Advisors and Legal Advisors. 

State legal service appoints lawyers through SPSC exams in senior position in State police/Revenue/Judicial Departments. The basic qualification is degree in law, besides a degree in Arts / Science / Commerce / Agriculture. Average age limit is between 21 to 30 years. 

In the judiciary, the posts are that of the magistrate, district and sessions judge, munsifs (sub-magistrate), public prosecutor, solicitors, attorney general, advocate general, notary and oath commissioner. There are also legal secretaries appointed in assemblies, law inspectors, legal officers in banks, judicial members of income tax, sales tax and excise departments, government advocates and staff in the registrar of companies' office. The examination for these posts take place periodically & is advertised as and when the vacancies occur.

Attorney General - Attorney general appointed by the president advices the government of India on such legal matters as may be assigned to him by the president. He has the right of audience in all courts of India and participate in the proceedings of Parliament without the right to vote. 

Magistrate and Sub-Magistrate - A candidate who qualifies in the Law Service Commission or State Public Service Commission is eligible for appointment as Magistrate and Sub-Magistrate ( munsif). While magistrate presides over criminal court, munsif delivers judgment on civil cases. Promotion may take a person higher up to sub-judge, District and Sessions Courts Judge and further (depending upon seniority and vacancy) to appointments in High Courts and the Supreme Court.

Public Defenders - At the state, federal and local level, public defenders serve as court-appointed attorneys for those who cannot afford an attorney.

Public Prosecutor - Govt. Pleaders represent the State in sessions courts and lends advice to officers in districts in all legal matters when called for. 

Solicitor General - Advices the government on legal matters and submit statement of important cases to Attorney General of India for his opinion or appearance in the Supreme court as necessary. A Solicitor General is the second law officer of the country, next to Attorney General and assists the latter performs his duties.

Advocate General - Similar to the post of Attorney General at centre, each state has an Advocate General appointed by State Governors. These offices generally prosecute cases that have statewide significance and work with local District Attorney's offices in the prosecution of cases. One of the best ways to gain trial experience quickly after graduation is to work at a state attorney's office.

District Attorney - Assistant State Attorneys (also called district attorneys) are primarily responsible for criminal matters and prosecution. The District Attorney is usually an elected official. Depending upon the size of the District Attorney's office, they may have multiple units that focus upon different types of crime such as domestic violence, homicide, appellate work or sex crimes. If you work with a smaller District Attorney's office, you may have the option of handling diverse caseloads.

Notary, Oath Commissioner - A notary is a legal practitioner of at least ten years experience in the profession. He is appointed on application to Central, State government to draw, verify, authenticate, certify and attest the execution of any deed. Oath commissioner is another established authority similar to the notary. 

Legal Advisers - Public sector undertakings and state and central government organisations employ lawyers as advisers. They also work in legal departments of firms or for private clients. Legal advisors counsel their clients as to their legal rights and obligations and suggest the appropriate course of action in business and personal matters. They also check deeds, issue writs, collect information for affidavits and draft legal documents. 

Other fields : Lawyer can also work as legal counsel and legal advisers for firms, organizations and families. They can work as trustees of various trusts, as teachers, law reporters, company secretary and so on. Opportunities exist in the defense services too. Additional qualification along with law degree offers scope for a wide range of employment opportunities.

Defence Service

They can work in the legal branches of defence departments such as the Indian army, Navy and Air force. They conduct courts of enquiry and court martials of offending service personnel governed by the particular legislation acts. 

Advocate

An advocate practises in the court of law. He represents a party (individual, group of individuals or a company) in a court of law. They present the facts of the case to the judge, cross examine witnesses and finally sum up the reasons as to why the court should decide in their clients' favour.

Solicitor

Solicitor is a kind of advisor to clients on a variety of matters that involves law. Solicitors explain the cases of his clients to the advocates. Solicitors need never appear in court directly. Solicitor's firms undertake cases related to their area of work.

Teacher

Those with a good aptitude and taste for teaching, can go for LL.M and take up job in any University or Institute offering law courses to students.

Writer

If he has a flair for writing may act as an author and produce journals and legal commentaries and bring out law reports. They can write articles for magazines, news papers etc. 

Company Secretary 

A law graduate and/or a member of the Institute of Company Secretaries can be employed as a company secretary in a firm.

Institutes

Click on the following link for the details of Indian Institutes :

» Bachelor of General Law (BGL)

» Bachelor of Law (LLB)

» Certificate Course in Cyber Laws

» Certificate Course in Infotech Law

» Diploma in Administrative Laws

» Diploma In Alternative Dispute Resolution System

» Diploma in Co-operative Law

» Diploma in Corporate Laws and Management

» Diploma In Environmental Laws

» Diploma in Human Rights (DHR)

» Diploma in Intellectual Property Rights

» Diploma in International Laws

» Diploma in Labour Law and Personnel Management

» Diploma in Labour Laws (DLL)

» Diploma In Labour Laws and Industrial Relations

» Diploma in Labour Laws and Labour Welfare

» Diploma in Taxation Laws (DTL)

» Doctor of Laws (LL.D)

» Integrated BA LLB

» M.A. Human Rights

» M.A. Human Rights And Duties Education

» M.Phil. Law

» Master of Comparative Laws (MCL)

» Master of Law (LLM)

» P.G Diploma in Women's Rights and Human Rights

» Ph.D. Law

» Post Graduate Diploma in Corporate Laws

» Post Graduate Diploma in Cyber Laws

» Post Graduate Diploma in Environmental Laws

» Post Graduate Diploma in French Law

» Post Graduate Diploma in Human Rights

» Post Graduate Diploma in Insurance Law

» Post Graduate Diploma in Intellectual Property Laws

» Post Graduate Diploma in Labour Laws

» Post Graduate Diploma in Labour Laws and Labour Welfare

» Post Graduate Diploma in Patent and IP Laws, Processes and Services

» Post Graduate Diploma in Security Law

» Post Graduate Diploma in Taxation Laws

Overseas Institutes :

» Institutes in USA

» Institutes in Canada

Judge

Judge is the highest and the most respected position in the legal/ judicial system of India. Judges are impartial decision-makers in the pursuit of justice and they rule on questions of law, act as a referee between the litigating parties and renders decisions in legal disputes.

The terms 'Judge' and 'Magistrate' are often confused and generally is believed to be the same person. But the terms have two different meanings and refer to two very different positions and power. A judge is bestowed with more powers than a magistrate. A Judge is a person who presides over court proceedings, either alone, with a panel of judges or a jury, depending on the jurisdiction. A Judge hold more administrative power and are responsible for handling criminal cases, federal cases, constitutional cases and high priority cases. The judge is expected to hear all witnesses, view all evidences, access the arguments by the prosecutor and the defendant, and form an opinion and give a verdict. On the other hand, Magistrate who is considered as an officer of the state, is responsible for handling smaller and minor cases. They are appointed in Magistrate Courts by the Judge and has limited power in terms of authority, law enforcement and jurisdiction. 

Judges are always appointed or elected to their positions with political support. The duties, method of appointment, discipline and training of judges vary depending on their jurisdictions and powers. They are endowed with large duties and responsibilities to work for the betterment of the country and performs a variety of tasks inside and outside the courtroom. 

The credibility and legitimacy of judicial decisions depend not only on its merit and soundness in law, but also on public perception of impartiality and objectivity of the procedure adopted by the judge. This is a delicate task which judges have to internalise when they assume the role of judging.

Skills and Qualities needed for a Judge 

A judge should possess excellent spirit and work on new techniques and strategies for serving the country and also work for the development of the country. There are certain personal skills that are important for the judges including personal honesty and sense of responsibility, impartiality, courtesy, mercy, patience, commitment and self-confidence. Judges often have the ability to work hard as they have to work at speed and under pressure. Excellent public speaking, logical reasoning, analytical, decision-making, debating skills are the other key skills required for the judges to analyze complex cases and to deliver sound legal decisions. Judges must strive for the highest standards of integrity in both their professional and personal lives.

How to become a Judge

In order to become a Judge one has to qualify the Judicial Service Examination conducted annually by Public Service Commission of the respective States. For appearing in this exam, one must hold a legal degree from a recognized university or institution and must have enrolled as an advocate with membership in the state bar council. The age limit for appearing however, may vary from State to State. 

Judicial Services Examination 

Judicial Service Preliminary Examination is held in two successive stages namely Judicial Service Preliminary Examination and Judicial Service Main Examination. The Preliminary Exam comprises objective type questions. The Preliminary Examination is conducted only for the purpose of short listing candidates for the Main Examination (written).

The marks obtained by the candidates in the Preliminary Examination will not be counted for the purpose of determining the final merit list. The Final merit list will be prepared on the basis of total marks obtained in the Main Examination and the Viva-Voce Test. The percentage of qualifying marks in preliminary exams and the scheme and syllabus of both Preliminary and Main Examination may vary from state to state.

Generally the minimum qualifying marks in the preliminary examination shall be 60% for general and 55% for reserved categories i.e. Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and Physically Handicapped (Blind/Low Vision) (Mobility not to be restricted)/ Orthopaedically. Only those candidates who have obtained 40% marks in each written paper and 50% marks in aggregate (except in the case of candidates belonging to reserved categories) shall be called for viva voce test. The marks obtained in the Viva-voce will be added to the marks obtained in the Main Examination (Written) and the candidates position will depend on the aggregate of both.

For the details syllabus of the exams, refer PSC websites of the respective states. In most of the states, District and Sessions Judges are being recruited through competitive examination conducted by State commissions and also through promotions from those in service/ selected from amongst the practicing lawyers. 

Only those candidates who have qualified in the Judicial Service Examination are eligible for the post of a Judge.

APPOINTMENT OF JUDGES

The Constitution of India is endowed with three-tier judicial system, which involves Supreme Court of India, The High Courts in the States and Subordinate Courts. So the constitution of India requires that the appointment of Judges must be from amongst the members of the Bar at all these three levels.

Supreme Court

The Supreme Court of India is the highest judicial forum and final court of appeal under the Constitution of India. The Supreme Court of India comprises the Chief Justice of India (CJI) and 30 other Judges and they are appointed by the President of India. Chief Justice is the highest-ranking and the senior most judge in the Supreme Court of India, and thus holds the highest judicial position in India. The President appoints the Chief Justice of Supreme Court after consultation with other judges of the Supreme Court and High courts. 

To be appointed as a Judge of the Supreme Court, a person must:

• be a citizen of India 
• have been a Judge of a high court for at least five years or two or more such courts in succession, or
• an advocate of a high court or of two or more such courts in succession for at least 10 years or 
• be a distinguished jurist, in the opinion of the president

The judges of the Supreme Court hold office until they attain the age of 65 years. 

High Court

Every judge in a High Court are appointed by the President of India in consultation with the Chief Justice of India, the Governor of the state and the Chief Justice of the High Court. For appointing the Chief justice of High Court, the President consults with the Chief Justice of India and the Governor. The number of judges in the court is decided by dividing the average institution of main cases during the last five years by the national average, or the average rate of disposal of main cases per judge per year in that High Court, whichever is higher.

To be eligible to become a Judge in the High Court, a person should have held a Judicial Office in India for 10 years or has experience of 10 years practice, as an advocate in a High Court or of two or more such courts in succession.

The judges of the High Court hold office until he attains the age of 62 years.

District Court

Each state is divided into judicial districts presided over by a District and Sessions Judge. He is known as a District Judge when he presides over a civil case, and a Sessions Judge when he presides over a criminal case. He is the highest judicial authority below a High Court judge. In addition to the district judge there may be number of Additional District Judges and Assistant District Judges depending on the workload. They are known by different names in different states.

The district court has appellate jurisdiction over all subordinate courts situated in the district on both civil and criminal matters. Subordinate courts, on the civil side (in ascending order) are, Junior Civil Judge Court, Principal Junior Civil Judge Court, Senior Civil Judge Court (also called sub-court). Subordinate courts, on the criminal side (in ascending order) are, Second Class Judicial Magistrate Court, First Class Judicial Magistrate Court, Chief Judicial Magistrate Court.

The judges of district courts are appointed by the Governor after consultation with the Chief Justice of the High Court of the concerned State. The necessary qualification to become a district judge is minimum seven years of practice as an advocate or a pleader.

District judges are also appointed by way of elevation of judges from courts subordinate to district courts provided they fulfill the minimum years of service.

Magistrates / Munsiff

Magistrates are appointed by Central or State Government in consultation with the Chief Justice of the High Court of the concerned State.

Job Profile of Judges

Judges may be designated according to the level of court in judicial hierarchy as Supreme-Court Judge, High-Court Judge, District-Court Judge; Magistrate –court Magistrate, Munsiff - court Munsiff and preside over the particular court department.

Most judges and magistrates work in private offices called chambers, courtrooms and law libraries. They do most of their work in their chambers, such as read legal briefs and motions, research legal issues, hold hearings with lawyers, and write judgment. The duty of the judges vary depending on their jurisdictions and powers. They may hear cases in civil, appellate, criminal or juvenile courts at the local, state or federal level. 

The major duties, responsibilities and function of the judge are : 

• They interpret and establish law and enforce rules of procedure even if there is no standard procedures
• Presiding over trials or hearings to make sure they are conducted fairly
• Conducts the trial impartially and in an open court
• Advises counsel, litigants or court personnel regarding conduct, issues, and proceedings.
• Settling disputes between opposing attorneys
• Listening to attorneys presenting their cases
• Listening to allegations made by plaintiffs and hears all the witnesses
• The judge hears the evidence presented by the prosecution and the defense and determine whether the evidence supports the charges.
• Assess the evidence presented
• Ruling on admissibility of evidence in court
• Judges often conduct pretrial hearings to determine whether evidence presented during a pretrial hearing merits a trial
• Instruct juries on applicable laws, direct juries to deduce the facts from the evidence presented
• Read documents on pleadings and motions to ascertain facts and issues.
• The judge decides whether the accused person is guilty or innocent on the basis of the evidence presented and in accordance with the law
• In criminal cases, the judge decides whether to hold defendants in jail pending trial or to set bail and other conditions for release. 
• In civil cases they must decide whether a claim is valid and assesses damages, grants an injunction or orders some other form of redress to the plaintiff, unless a jury has been empanelled to make these decisions.
• Judge remains above the case, providing an independent and impartial judgment of the facts and how the law applies to those facts
• If the accused is convicted, then the judge pronounces the sentence. He may send the person to jail or impose a fine or both, depending on what the law prescribes
• When making certain sentencing orders they should provide reasons for the sentence in the open court and make sure the offender consents to the order and agrees to comply with it and make sure whether the reasons are recorded or not.

The Magistrate deals with criminal cases while the Munsif/Sub-judge deals with civil cases. These officers can become District and Sessions Judge by promotion and subject to their seniority and suitability. They can also be elevated to the office of a Judge of the High Court and the Supreme Court. Earlier District and Sessions Judges were promoted from those in service/ selected from amongst the practicing lawyers but now in most of the states they are being recruited through competitive examination conducted by State commissions.

Journalism/ Mass Communication

Journalism is concerned with collection and dissemination of news through the print media as well as the electronic media. This involves various areas of works like reporting, writing, editing, photographing, broadcasting or cable casting news items. 

Journalism is classified into two on the basis of media- (i) Print Journalism and (ii) Electronic (Audio/Visual) Journalism. Print Journalism includes newspapers, magazines and journals. In print journalism one can work as editors, reporters, columnists, correspondents etc. Electronic journalism includes working for Radio, Television and the Web. In the web, skilled people are required to maintain sites by web newspapers (which cater only to the web and do not have print editions) and popular newspapers and magazines who have their own web editions. In electronic journalism one can be a reporter, writer, editor, researcher, correspondent and anchor. 

Career in journalism is a prestigious profession as well as a highly paid one. Journalist play a major role in the development of nation. It is through them that we get information about daily happenings in the society. The purpose of journalism itself is to inform and interpret, educate and enlighten the people. 

The opportunities for journalists are endless and at the same time the job has become more challenging, as the new world is proving the adage that "the pen (and the camera) is mightier than the sword." Simple reporting of events is no more sufficient, more specialisation and professionalism in reporting is required. Journalists specialize in diverse areas, such as politics, finance and economics, investigation, culture and sports for newspapers and periodicals.

Eligibility & Course Areas

Educational Qualification: Bachelor's degree or post-graduate degree in journalism/mass communication is required to pursue a career in this field. Additional course work, specialized training or experience, fieldwork or internship increases one's opportunities in the field. There are a number of universities and institutes offering training in journalism. 

Minimum eligibility for Bachelor degree in journalism is 10+2 and for Post graduate degree courses a Bachelor degree in journalism. Some institutes also provide one year certificate courses in journalism for which eligibility is 10+2. There are also courses in specialized areas of journalism like sports, television, photo, press law etc. 

No course or training can claim to make one, a journalist. The courses train persons in the technical aspects only, to ensure one's success in the field one must have an inborn ability to write and produce new stories in correct, concise and interesting style. Latest trend in this regard is that big groups of newspapers advertise the posts of trainees for which all graduates are eligible. After conducting the entrance examination, suitable graduate trainees, with flair for writing are selected and employed. In other words, now the formal academic qualification for being a reporter, copy writer or correspondent is not essential. 

Personal Attributes: To become a journalist one should have an inquisitive mind, will power, an aptitude for presenting information in an accurate, concise and effective manner, organize their thoughts and to express themselves clearly both orally and in writing. At the same time a journalist has to be tactful, confident and organised while interviewing people from all walks of life. They must have the ability to sift relevant facts from the irrelevant. The ability to accept criticism and willingness to do considerable rewriting are also necessary.

Job Prospects & Career Options

Job Prospects

They can find employment with newspapers, periodicals and magazines, central information service, press information bureau, websites, AIR and TV channels like Doordarshan, ZEE TV, Star TV etc. At the same time they can do freelancing. One can also take up this career as a part time employment along with any other field of work. 

Career Options in Journalism

Journalists can work as editors, reporters, columnists, correspondents, staff or freelance writer, photojournalists, proofreaders, news analysts etc. in print (newspapers and magazines) and electronic (Radio, Television and Web) media. 

Editing | Writing | Reporting | Photography | Others

Editing

Editor: In the editing field there are various positions :

Chief Editor/Resident Editor: Chief /resident editor is in charge of the over-all functions of the publication. His primary responsibility is to supervise the functions of collection, selection and presentation of news. He reads and corrects copy for publication, decide on the editorial policy and the content of publications. Resident editor is in charge of a particular edition (Eg: Chennai edition, Mumbai edition etc.). 

Personal attributes: He should have excellent journalistic vision- awareness of the major or minor political and current affairs, communication skills, leadership quality and long term experience as an editor. 

Sub Editor: They assist chief editor in selecting & sorting the contents. Their job involves re-writing stories to fit the space assigned, improve the language, insert punctuation etc. They also give headlines and help in page layout. There are number of sub editors for each news paper. The chief sub editor is in charge of the team of sub editors- he assigns work and coordinates and supervises them. He act as a link between the chief editor and sub editors. 

News /Feature Editor: He is the right-hand man of the chief editor. He decides on the news to be published in the newspaper each day. He collect news, controls the network of correspondents, reporting staff and other news sources, allocate assignments and attend editorial conferences. 

Associate Editor: He directs the preparation of a section of a newspaper, magazine or a television or radio segment. He prepares news, feature articles and critical reviews, and plans the layout of the publication, assigns reporting staff and photographers to obtain coverage of matters of news or interest related to his section.

Personal attributes: Editors must have the ability to write & edit articles, take speedy decisions, a questioning mentality and an awareness of current affairs.

Job Prospectus: They can find job with newspaper groups, publishers of magazines and journals, Indian Information Service of the Government, websites etc. 

Proofreader: A proofreader compare proofs and edited copy (Written, typed or printed material) to ensure that the final text is complete and accurate, and that the spelling and punctuation are correct before final printing. They mark proofs for corrections, check revised proofs to ensure that the corrections have been made. They must have sound knowledge of spelling, punctuation and grammar, should be able to pay particular attention to detail and retain concentration for a long period. 

Reporting

Reporter: He is the one who reports events as and when it occurs. The reporter is said to be the eyes & ears of the newspaper. Reporter attend press conferences, conduct interviews, visit sites of major occurrence and gather first hand report and present them in an unbiased manner. Their job involves a lot of traveling. A Chief reporter is in charge of the team of reporters, and assigns work to the reporters. Main newspapers employ reporters in all major cities. 

Personal attributes: Reporter should have an analytic approach, perseverance, cool temperament, writing skill and self-confidence. He should have good contacts with various news resources and an ability to sense news.

Correspondent/Special Reporters: They are reporters for special purposes and their task involves reporting on a particular topic like politics, foreign affairs, sports, finance etc. They often report on news covering their area of expertise from a place where the particular event is happening. Their aim is to interpret or explain news, and comment on the events, trends and causes behind it. Special correspondent must choose the concerned field in which he has special interest to make a success out of it. Usually one must have sufficient experience as a reporter to become a special correspondent. 

Writing

Writer: A writer chooses themes or subjects for written work, conduct research into the subject, assemble background material and obtain other necessary data. Writers may specialise in- Journalism, fiction writing; children's books, educational textbook writing, historical writing and transferring oral histories into written form, humour or comedy writing and so on. In journalism, writers can be feature writers, leader writers, writers for multimedia and web and so on. 

Feature writer: Feature writers writes detailed stories or presents commentaries on specific news topics. They research and analyse facts and draw conclusions on a particular topic. They can cover any topic of public interest like interviews, organising data and evidence, feature story leads etc. Feature writing is more descriptive and detailed than news reporting. 

Leader Writer: He gives ideas on news topics in the editorial columns of newspapers or magazines and discusses prospects of improvement with trainee writers.

Writing for Multimedia and the Web: Writers are required in multimedia and the worldwide Web for writing news and other articles. They must have a skill for writing precise text adaptive to the environment. If you can communicate your ideas through graphics, animation etc it is an added advantage in this field. 

Columnist: They are writers who contribute regularly to a publication. Usually one column on general or a specific topic is devoted to the writer. They writes a regular segment within their particular interest category, e.g. gardening, fashion, politics, films. The columnist usually projects a point of view, and could either be a commentator or a critic. They review developments in special areas they write on & may contribute to a number of news papers at the same time. 

Critic: A critic needs to be well read, have adequate knowledge and experience in his respective field. One can be a critic in various fields like film, art, drama etc. Only persons having good knowledge about the particular subject/art can authoritatively write about the subject.

Photography

Photo Journalist or News Photographer: They are the visual reporters. Photo journalists accompany reporters on assignments to take pictures that support a news story, feature or interview. They must know what makes a good news picture; be able to write accurate captions, work well with reporters, be quick and often work under difficult conditions. They must have good knowledge about technical aspects of photography like lighting, speed etc. to take photographs apt for the particular situation. 

Others

Fashion Journalist: He is an overall in-charge of a fashion magazine. It is through him that the general public gets to know the latest fashion trends. He should have excellent taste for fashion and keeps himself abreast with latest fashion news, consumer reaction to new collections, fashion shows, current and future trends in colour, design and fabric. Today fashion journalist has a bright scope for employment as there is a need for exclusive articles and programmes with the development of fashion industry. 

Cartoonists and illustrators make a social or political comment on public figures or events in the form of a cartoon that is funny as well as witty. A cartoon is one man's view of the world.

Other departments included in the publication of a newspaper or periodical are : production, advertising, legal affairs department, circulation and public relations.

Institutes

Several Institues in India offers various courses in Journalism and Mass Communication. Click on the following links for the details of Indian Institutes :

» B.A. Journalism

» B.A. Mass Communication and Journalism

» Bachelor of Journalism

» Bachelor of Journalism and Mass Communication

» Certificate Course in Journalism

» Certificate Course in Mass Communication and Journalism

» Diploma in Journalism

» Diploma in Journalism and Mass Communication

» Diploma in TV Journalism and Presentation

» M.A. Journalism

» M.A. Journalism and Mass Communication

» M.Phil. Journalism

» M.Sc. Mass Communication and Journalism

» Post Graduate Diploma in Journalism

» Post Graduate Diploma in Journalism and Mass Communication

Overs seas Institutes :

» Institutes in USA

» Institutes in Canada

Jewellery Designing

Jewellery - something which always charms us - has a great economic significance in the Indian Industry and is regarded as a major source of investment. Women has always had an affinity towards jewellery and Indian women has adorned herself with precious jewellery, gold and diamonds to enhance her feminine beauty from time immemorial. India, is the biggest consumer of gold with 20% of world gold consumption and this industry gives employment to millions of people. Indian jewellery industry is said to have an ancient and historical tradition of over 5,000 years with its own distinct designs, patterns and art forms. 

For centuries, the art of making jewellery has been the monopoly of traditional 'kaarigars' or goldsmiths who have inherited the expertise from their ancestors and have played the dual role of designer and manufacturer. During those days, jewellery designing as a career had been limited to the kaarigars and one could learn this profession only by becoming an apprentice to an experienced jeweller. But today with the explosion in the fashion and accessories arena, the field is becoming a lucrative career which offers a sparkling future for those who are fascinated by gems and jewellery. A new breed of jewelry designers and professionals like gem appraisers are in great demand with the growing market for branded ornaments.

Jewellery designing is an art of designing and making jewellery, stone cutting, engraving and polishing etc. Jewellery designers are those who plan the style and pattern of jewellery, silverware and other decorative metal work products. They require a high degree of skill and precision and use a variety of specialized hand tools and equipments to design and manufacture new pieces of jewellery. In addition, to be successful in the field they should be able to understand the market, identify the consumer needs, visualize ideas to suit the demands and create impressive presentations to communicate the end product to the client.

The fast growing jewellery business in the country has tremendous employment potential and offers excellent career opportunities to professional executives in the industry. Graduates with specialization in Jewellery Design and Management are in great demand globally for managing the jewellery business.

Eligibility & Course Areas

A course in Jewellery designing is a comprehensive one, dealing with all the fine details of jewellery making and designing. Specially meant for those who are creative and have an artistic blend of mind, these courses give basic information on the different kinds of stones, colour coding, schemes, polishing and finishing, presentation and framing, drawing techniques, ornament making and designing and so on. Apart from these, they could also learn special skills like electroplating, metal colouring, anodizing, enameling, stone setting and silversmithing. Numerous institutes all over India offer various courses in jewellery designing. In most of the institutes, the course is incorporated with other designing courses. 

For Diploma, Degree and Certificate courses in Jewellery designing, one should have passed 10+2 or equivalent examination from any stream of a recognised institution. Several short term courses are offered for those who have completed their 10th class. Before qualifying for the course, a student has to pass an aptitude test followed by an interview. Crash courses are also offered to the working professionals and students. Training in this field may include art classes through technical schools, along with computer-aided jewelry design training in specific software packages like Rhino, Jewel Cad, Auto Cad, 3D Studio, etc. Moreover, the use of Photoshop, Corel Draw and in-depth analysis of volume, weight and metal composition are generally considered to be vital parts of the jewellery designing syllabus.

Duration of the courses may vary from 3-6 months to 2-3 years. The minimum age required is 15 years. As part of their curriculum most institutes conduct special workshops for students. 

Personal skills

The most vital attribute needed for a jewellery designer is the sense of design and a passion for the profession. They should be creative, imaginative, technically sound, well-versed with the fashion industry, and committed to work. Other attributes needed for a designer are skills in drawing and computer designing, an open mind that can visualise designs from anything and everything, skills to understand the latest trends and practical skills with tools and materials. They must also possess a working knowledge about manufacturing, understanding of various metals and gemstones and must have numerical skills for measuring, calculating costs of materials and pricing items.

Job Prospects & Career Options

Making of jewelry requires a wide variety of skills, which involves training and creativity. The work in the jewellery industry involves casting and molding of jewellery, and the identification and testing of jewellery and gemstones. Designing, Manufacturing and Marketing are the major tasks performed. One can work in the industry as a Designer, join the Manufacturing section, Retailing department and even specialize in Gemology and deal with identification and grading of various precious stones and diamonds.

The designer prepares sketches of the design on a paper by hand or on the computer to conceputalise the design. After consulting with the customer or the manufacturing team, the designers make detailed drawings, a structural model, computer stimulations or a full-scale prototype. Then these designs are created out of the regular or floral patterns and then forms are generated by connecting different structures together. In the manufacturing process, a model of the design is prepared by shaping the metal or by carving wax and the individual parts are soldered together. After that, finishing works like setting stone or gems, polishing, engraving etc are done.

Nowadays, computer-aided design (CAD) software's are used in the manufacturing firms to facilitate product design and to avoid flaws during the designing process. CAD allows to create a virtual-reality model of a piece of jewelry and the designers can modify the design, change the stone or try a different setting and see the changes on a computer screen before cutting a stone or performing other costly steps. After that a mold of the prepared model is produced in a wax like or other material with the help of Computer aided manufacturing (CAM) process. CAM helps in the easier manufacturing of numerous pieces of the same design which are then distributed to retail establishments across the country.

The most essential factor in getting a job is to present a strong portfolio of the work. More than qualification, it is the skills and experience that makes an excellent jewellery designer. Graduates in jewellery designing with excellent skills are in great demand in India and abroad. After successful completion of a course in jewellery designing, one can find outstanding job prospects in various jewellery manufactures & designing houses, export houses and renowned jewellery brand names such as Nakshatra, Tanishq, D-damas, Swarovski, Gili, Tribhuvandas Bhimji Zaveri to name a few. One can opt for setting up their own Design Studio and workshop; or can also work as a freelance designer. 

Most designers start their career in jewellery industry as apprentices in showrooms or in their family businesses. As they gain more skill in jewellery design and repair, they may take advantage of opportunities to specialize in a specific area of the field such as goldsmithing, wax carving or stone setting. One can start their own business with a couple of years experience, or once they have evolved their unique style and has the ability to identify and rate a good gem or a stone. Jewellery designer should be well aware of the current trends and carry on with the latest models and styles. 

Since most vacancies in this field are not advertised, it is handy for a designer to make a good contact network within the industry by attending trade fairs and exhibitions. Some of the career prospects in the field of jewellery designing are : 

• In Jewellery Stores

• Manufacturing Companies

• Self Employment

• Teaching and Research

• Independent Shop/ Private Studios

• Fairs and Flea Markets.

There are abundant job openings for jewellery designers in foreign countries, especially in Bangkok and Singapore.

Institutes

The Gemological Institute of America has opened its education centre in Mumbai with the aim to educate Indian jewellery professionals in the common language of the global gem industry.

List of JEWELLERY DESIGNING INSTITUTES IN INDIA

Click on the following link for the details of Indian Institutes :

» Advance Diploma in Accessory and Lifestyle Products

» Advance Diploma in Jewellery Design

» B.Sc. Jewellery Design

» Bachelor of Design (B.Des.) Accessory Design

» Bachelor of Jewellery Design

» Certificate Course in Jewellery Designing 

» Certificate Programme in Casting Technology

» Certificate Programme in Engraving and Enameling

» Certificate Programme in Lapidary

» Computer Aided Jewellery Design

» Diploma in Accessory and Lifestyle Products

» Diploma in Accessory Design

» Diploma In Jewellery Business Management (DJBM) 

» Diploma in Jewellery Designing

» Diploma in Polished Diamond Graduate (PDG)

» Diploma in Rough Diamond Graduate

» Graduate Diploma in Jewellery Designing and Manufacture (DJDM)

» Masters Diploma in Jewellery Design and Technology

» Professional Certificate in Jewellery Designing

» Professional Jewelers Diploma

Overseas Institutes :

» Institutes in USA

» Institutes in Canada